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Flavonoids are abundant and widely distributed plant secondary metabolites. They are the primary compounds of plant pigments, provide signals for pollinators and symbiotic bacteria, protect plants from UV-B and environmentally induced oxidative stress. 3
The ability to manipulate plant pigmentation has been extensively studied, particularly in ornamental flowers such as tulips or petunia. Flower color is primarily determined by anthocyanins, a class of flavonoid pigments responsible for red, purple and blue hues. In species like tulipa, variation in color is achieved through differences in anthocyanin composition, concentration and cellular localization. Genetic engineering approaches have successfully modified flower color by altering key enzymes in the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway or by introducing transcription factors that regulate pigment production. 4